Authors : Owen Malawo

Volume/Issue : Volume 11 - 2026, Issue 7 - July

Google Scholar : https://tinyurl.com/49z46wh9

Scribd : https://tinyurl.com/44c4by7a

DOI : https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/26jul350

Note : A published paper may take 4-5 working days from the publication date to appear in PlumX Metrics, Semantic Scholar, and ResearchGate.

Abstract : The deterioration of drinking water quality following the collection from a community water source such as boreholes and standpipes during storage in the home has been well documented. However, there is a view that the postsupply contamination is of little Public health consequence. This research explores the potential health risks from consuming contaminated drinking water at household level. A conceptual framework of principal factors that determine the pathogen load in household drinking water is proposed. Using this framework, a series of hypotheses are developed about the risk of disease transmission from contaminated water and examined the light of current literature and detailed field observation in rural Sinazeze communities. It is shown that considerable evidence of disease transmission from recontaminated drinking water at the household level exists. In particular the type of storage container and hand contact with stored drinking water has been associated with increased incidences of diarrhoeal diseases. There is also circumstantial evidence linking such factors as sanitary conditions in the domestic environment, cultural norms, and poverty with the pathogen load of household stored drinking water and hence the risk of disease transmission. Mortalities and morbidities have proliferated due to continued consumption of contaminated water at household level. A study was undertaken to explore factors contributing to microbiological quality in handling stored water among residents of Sinazeze Compound in Sinazongwe District, Zambia The study used qualitative analytical research approaches to collect and analyse data from 60 householders. The results show that the community had generalized knowledge about factors contributing to contamination of household water supply sources. Yet they overlooked individual factors contributing to contamination of household water supplies. This study found improper disposal of water agro-chemicals containers, faecal matter, pesticide and general household waste. Personal hygiene of water handlers, collectors and users, unconcern use of dirty utensils when dawning water from the storage constrainers including individual failures to secure water from contaminants, poor storage practices, type of storage vessel, transportation and sending children to draw water from storage containers contribute to the problem of contamination even if water was safe at the source or point of collection. In conclusion the quantity and quality of household water supplies should be given equal importance. Awareness related to ‘water conservation’ and ‘safe drinking water’ is extremely important and should be given a good thought to the people.

Keywords : Safe Water Supplies, Water Quality, Hygiene and Environmental Sanitation.

References :

1. A . Raeisia, F. Soleimanib, S. Dobaradarn, M. Ketshtkarb, and V. N Karbasdehib, Microbial, Chemical  and physical properties  of drinking water Bushehr distribution network system .’’ Desalination and water Treatment, Vol.65, pp.208-2014, 2016.
2. A. Schriewer, S. Wueertz, P. R. Misra et al.,’’ Human and Animal  fecal contamination of community water sources, stored drinking water and hands in rural India measured with Validated microbial  source tracking assays,’’ American Journal  of tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Vol.93, no.3, pp.509-516, 2015.
3. Baker, M.N. (1948). The Quest for pure water. The American Water Works Association Inc., New York.pp. 7-76.
4. Babbie, E. (1989). The practice of Social Research Belmont, Wadsworth Publishing Company.
5. Becker, H. (1973) Outsiders, New York, Free Press.
6. Berk L. E. (2000) Child Development, Boston, Allyn and Bacon.
7. C. Opio, Building Effective Drinking  Water Management Policies in Rural Africa: lessons  from Northern Uganda, Discussion Paper Series No. 6, Africa Initiative and The Centre for International Governance Innovation, Waterloo, ON, Canada, 2012.
8. F. N.W.Nsubunga, E.N. Nabumutebi, and M.Nsubunga-ssnfuma, ‘Water resources of Uganda: an assessment and review’, Journal of Water resource and protection, Vol.6, no14, PP.1297-1315,2014.
9. GTZ:Water and sanitation sector reforms in Africa, 2008 p. 22-23
10. Hulya Dagdeviren: Waiting for Miracles: The Commercialization of Urban Water Services in Zambia, Development and Change, Volume 39, Issue 1, Pages 101 - 121, 2008
11. Kampata, Jonathan (6–8 December 2010). "The influence of international water governance on water management in Zambia" (PDF). Bonn: Department of Water Affairs. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
12. K. Amenu, M. Spengler, A. Maremann, and A. V. Zarate ‘’ Microbial quality of water in rural households of Ethipia: implications for Milk safety and public health,’’ Journal of Health population and Nutrition, Vol.32, no.2, pp 190-197, 2014.
13. Kaplan, G. (1964) Research methods in education research in Carter and Little, (2007) A choice of research strategy for identifying community-based action skill requirements in the process of delivering housing market renewal. Research Institute for the Built and Human Environment: University of Salford, UK.
14. KfW:Zambia - Successful Water Kiosks, accessed on May 21, 2011
15. Kothri, P. (1990) "The Function of Measurement in Modern Physical Science" Isis 52 (2): 161–193 (162)
16. LeChevallier, M. and Au, K. (2004) Water Treatment and Pathogen Control: Process Efficiency in Achieving Safe Drinking Water. IWA Publishing, London.
17. N.S, Raju, N. S. Roopovathi, K.K Ramachandra, and I. R. S Niranjana, ‘The future of water, sanitation, and hygiene: innovation, adaptation and engagement in changing world. Assessment of coliform contamination in drinking water from source to point of use in Mysore City of  Karnataka,  India, ’’in proceedings of 3th WEDC International conference, Loughborough, UK, July 2011, http://wed.iboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/35/Raju-1047.pdf.
18. Mintz, E.D., et al. (1995) Safe Water Treatment and Storage in the Home A Practical Strategy to Prevent Water Borne Diseases. JAMA, 273, 948-953.
19. Luby, S. (2001). The role of hand washing in improving hygiene and health in low-income countries September 2001American Journal of Infection Control 29(4):239-40
20. Maree, K. (ed) (2007) First Steps in Research, Pretoria. Van Schaik.
21. McMillan, J.H. & Schumacher, S. (2006). Sixth Edition. Research in Education: Evidence-Based Inquiry. USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
22. Morgan, L. (2009) Family in the historical perspective.  Longman: London
23. NWASCO. "Urban and Peri-Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Report 2010/11" (PDF). Retrieved 27 August 2011.
24. NWASCO Report 2007
25. NWASCO. "Annual Report 2010" (PDF). pp. 4–6. Retrieved 27 August 2011.
26. Ole (2009). Regulierungsbehörden für den Wassersektor in Low-Income Countries. Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovac. pp. 355–367.
27. Reasoner, D.J. and Geldreich, E.E. (1985) A New Medium for the Enumeration and Subculture of Bacteria from Potable Water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 49, 1-7
28. Smith, S (2013) Determining Sample Size: How to Ensure You Get the Correct Sample Size. Available online at www.qualtics.com {Accessed on 19th April, 2015}
29. UNICEF: First Lady of Zambia: Clean water gets girls into school, 7 February 2005
30. WHO, UNICEF. Progress on sanitation and drinking-water: 2013 update. Geneva:
31. White G F, Bradley D J, White A U, (1972). Drawers of water: domestic water use in East Africa, University of Chicago Press: Chicago
32. WHO; 2011. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water and Sanitation
33. "Zambia is behind in meeting MDG on water - Chitumbo". Sunday Post. 22 March 2012. Retrieved 22 December 2012.
34. Zambia Water Sector Challenges for Integrated Water Resources Management in Zambia, by Peter Sievers, Programme Coordinator, Water Sector Coordination Unit, Royal Danish Embassy, Zambia, January 2006, p. 3 references.