Authors : Samuel Danley; Faith Dedan Nyari

Volume/Issue : Volume 11 - 2026, Issue 8 - August

Google Scholar : https://tinyurl.com/4578ax68

Scribd : https://tinyurl.com/y53am7tx

DOI : https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/26aug359

Note : A published paper may take 4-5 working days from the publication date to appear in PlumX Metrics, Semantic Scholar, and ResearchGate.

Abstract : In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), maternal and fetal health remains threatened by high rates of maternal mortality, micronutrient deficiencies, anemia, low birth weight, preterm birth and childhood stunting. The study of interactions between nutrients and the genome, known as nutrigenomics, has emerged as a promising approach to understand biological variability in pregnancy outcomes and to advance precision nutrition. Nevertheless, data from African populations are still scarce, despite the region’s exceptional genetic diversity and heavy burden of maternal and child health problems related to nutrition. A narrative review was performed to synthesize current evidence on gene-nutrient interactions and their implications for maternal-fetal health in SSA. Literature published in the English language from January 2010 to July 2026 was identified through searches of PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. These searches were complemented by screening reference lists and reports from international organizations. Eligible publications included original research articles, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, randomized controlled trials, cohort studies and policy documents that related to nutrigenomics, nutrigenetics, epigenetics, maternal nutrition, fetal development and precision nutrition. Evidence was thematically synthesized. This review shows that maternal nutrition and genetic variation can interact to impact pregnancy outcomes through mechanisms related to folate metabolism (MTHFR), iron metabolism (HFE), vitamin D signaling (VDR), micronutrient metabolism and nutrition-sensitive epigenetic regulation. The Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) paradigm suggests that maternal nutritional exposures during critical developmental windows influence fetal programming via DNA methylation, histone modification, and other epigenetic processes . Current nutrigenomic evidence from SSA remains geographically limited and hampered by poor genomic infrastructure, lack of funding, limited biobanking capacity, shortage of skilled researchers and underrepresentation of African populations in genomic databases. Nevertheless, progress in genomic technologies, digital health and artificial intelligence offer opportunities to advance precision nutrition research and develop context-specific maternal nutrition policies. Nutrigenomics has huge potential to improve maternal and fetal health in SSA using personalised nutrition approaches and evidence-based maternal health interventions. African-led nutrigenomics research, development of genomic infrastructure, promotion of regional collaboration and inclusion of gene–nutrient evidence in maternal health policies are necessary to improve pregnancy outcomes and reduce the long-term burden of nutrition-related diseases. Future investments in precision nutrition should prioritise African populations to equitably translate genomics advances to maternal and child healthcare.

Keywords : Nutrigenomics; Nutrigenetics; Maternal Health; Fetal Development; Precision Nutrition; Gene Nutrient Interactions; Epigenetics; DOHaD; Sub Saharan Africa.

References :

1. World Health Organization. (2025). Maternal mortality. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Retrieved from WHO website.
2. Kuma, M. N., Tamiru, D., Beressa, G., & Belachew, T. (2022). Effect of nutrition interventions before and/or during early pregnancy on low birth weight in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 43(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/03795721221078351
3. UNICEF. (2025). Maternal nutrition: Preventing malnutrition in pregnant and breastfeeding women. New York, NY: United Nations Children's Fund.
4. Asghar, W., & Khalid, N. (2023). Nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics, and precision nutrition. Nutrition and Health, 29(2), 177–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/02601060231167228
5. da Silva, B. R., Brennan, L., Horst, M. A., Wishart, D. S., & Prado, C. M. (2025). Advancing precision nutrition: Bridging mechanistic insight and clinical implementation. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 21, 515–517. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-025-01141-9
6. Nourazarain, A., & Vaziri, Y. (2025). Nutrigenomics meets multi-omics: Integrating genetic, metabolic, and microbiome data for personalized nutrition strategies. Genes & Nutrition, 20(30). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12263-025-00790-9
7. Vargas-Bello-Pérez, E., Elolimy, A., & Abdelatty, A. M. (2024). Editorial: Nutrigenomics: Omics of maternal nutrition and foetal programming. Frontiers in Genetics, 15, 1327341. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2024.1327341
8. Basak, S., Mallick, R., Sree, B. N., & Duttaroy, A. K. (2024). Placental epigenome impacts fetal development: Effects of maternal nutrients and gut microbiota. Nutrients, 16(12), 1860. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16121860
9. Fayyaz, K., & Khalid, N. (2025). Precision nutrition: Paving the path from potential to practice through systems science and ethical translation. Nutrition and Health, 31(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/02601060251392227
10. Petre, M. L., Tsichla, H., & Kontouli-Pertesi, A. N. (2025). Precision nutrition: Is tailor-made dietary intervention a reality yet? Biomedical Reports, 22(5), 86. https://doi.org/10.3892/br.2025.1964
11. A Scoping Review of Artificial Intelligence for Precision Nutrition. (2025). Advances in Nutrition.
12. Bone, J. N., Pickerill, K., Kinshella, M. L. W., Vidler, M., Craik, R., Poston, L., Sevene, E., Temmerman, M., & colleagues. (2020). Pregnancy cohorts and biobanking in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. BMJ Global Health, 5(11), e003716. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003716
13. Solarin, I., Dumbura, C., Lakhoo, D. P., Chande, K., Maimela, G., Luchters, S., & Chersich, M. (2024). Characteristics of longitudinal maternal health studies in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic mapping of literature between 2012 and 2022. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 169(1), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijgo.16035
14. Ferguson, L. R., De Caterina, R., Görman, U., Allayee, H., Kohlmeier, M., Prasad, C., Choi, M. S., Curi, R., De Luis, D. A., Gil, Á., Kang, J. X., Martin, R. L., Milagro, F. I., Nicoletti, C. F., Nonino, C. B., Ordovas, J. M., Parslow, V. R., Portillo, M. P., Santos, J. L., & Martinez, J. A. (2016). Guide and position of the International Society of Nutrigenetics/Nutrigenomics on personalised nutrition: Part 1—Fields of precision nutrition. Journal of Nutrigenetics and Nutrigenomics, 9(1), 12–27. https://doi.org/10.1159/000445350
15. Gebretsadik, G. G., Biratu, A. K., Gessessew, A., Lassi, Z. S., Kahsay, A. B., & Mulugeta, A. (2025). Preconception health risks among women of reproductive age in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review of implications for preconception care. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 44, 164.
16. Ramsay, M., Crowther, N., Tambo, E., Agongo, G., Baloyi, V., Dikilitas, O., Gómez-Olivé, F. X., Jaff, N., Sorgho, H., Wagner, R. G., et al. (2018). Common and founder mutations for monogenic traits in Sub-Saharan African populations. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 19, 149–175. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genom-083117-021256
17. Belew, A. K., Mengistu, B., Lakew, A. M., & Muhammad, E. A. (2025). Food taboo practices and associated factors among pregnant women in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 44, 24.
18. David Barker. (2007). The origins of the developmental origins theory. Journal of Internal Medicine, 261(5), 412–417.
19. Barker, D. J. P. (1995). Fetal origins of coronary heart disease. BMJ, 311(6998), 171–174.
20. Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Buklijas, T. (2010). A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 1(1), 6–18.
21. Black, R. E., Victora, C. G., Walker, S. P., et al. (2013). Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 382(9890), 427–451.
22. Godfrey, K. M., Reynolds, R. M., Prescott, S. L., et al. (2017). Influence of maternal obesity on offspring health. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 5(1), 53–64.
23. Fleming, T. P., Watkins, A. J., Velazquez, M. A., et al. (2018). Origins of lifetime health around the time of conception. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 14(7), 403–413.
24. Lillycrop, K. A., & Burdge, G. C. (2015). Epigenetic changes in early life and future risk of obesity. International Journal of Obesity, 39(1), 15–21.
25. Vaiserman, A., & Lushchak, O. (2021). Developmental origins of health and disease: Epigenetic mechanisms. Frontiers in Genetics, 12, 705844.
26. Burton, G. J., & Fowden, A. L. (2015). The placenta and developmental programming. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 11(7), 412–425.
27. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
28. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
29. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, bmj.k2173.
30. Corella, D., & Ordovás, J. M. (2018). Interactions between dietary components and genetic variants. Annual Review of Nutrition, 38, 293–321.
31. Carlberg, C., & Haq, A. (2022). The concept of the personal vitamin D response index. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 219, 106084.
32. Basak, S., Mallick, R., Sree, B. N., & Duttaroy, A. K. (2024). Placental epigenome impacts fetal development: Effects of maternal nutrients and gut microbiota. Nutrients, 16(12), 1860.
33. Caffrey, A., McNulty, H., Rollins, M., Prasad, G., & Gaur, P. (2024). Folate metabolism, MTHFR polymorphisms, and pregnancy outcomes: Recent advances. Nutrients, 16(4), 521.
34. Vaiserman, A., & Lushchak, O. (2021). Developmental origins of health and disease: Epigenetic mechanisms. Frontiers in Genetics, 12, 705844.
35. Lillycrop, K. A., & Burdge, G. C. (2023). Nutrition, epigenetics, and developmental programming. Annual Review of Nutrition, 43, 95–118.
36. Godfrey, K. M., Costello, P. M., & Lillycrop, K. A. (2021). The developmental environment, epigenetic biomarkers and long-term health. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 12(1), 4–9.
37. Tobi, E. W., Slieker, R. C., Stein, A. D., Suchiman, H. E. D., & Heijmans, B. T. (2018). Insights from the Dutch famine studies. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 14(3), 183–195.
38. Godfrey, K. M., Reynolds, R. M., Prescott, S. L., et al. (2017). Influence of maternal obesity on offspring health. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 5(1), 53–64.
39. Burton, G. J., & Fowden, A. L. (2015). The placenta and developmental programming. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 11(7), 412–425.
40. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2173. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k2173
41. da Silva, B. R., Brennan, L., Horst, M. A., Wishart, D. S., & Prado, C. M. (2025). Advancing precision nutrition: Bridging mechanistic insight and clinical implementation. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 21(9), 515–517.
42. Ferguson, L. R., De Caterina, R., Görman, U., et al. (2016). Guide and position of the International Society of Nutrigenetics/Nutrigenomics on personalised nutrition. Journal of Nutrigenetics and Nutrigenomics, 9(1), 12–27.
43. Caffrey, A., McNulty, H., Rollins, M., Prasad, G., & Gaur, P. (2024). Folate metabolism, MTHFR polymorphisms, and pregnancy outcomes. Nutrients, 16(4), 521.
44. Means, R. T. (2023). Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia in pregnancy: Advances in diagnosis and management. Hematology Reports, 15(2), 112–121.
45. Carlberg, C., & Haq, A. (2022). The concept of the personal vitamin D response index. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 219, 106084.
46. Nourazarain, A., & Vaziri, Y. (2025). Nutrigenomics meets multi-omics: Integrating genetic, metabolic, and microbiome data for personalized nutrition strategies. Genes & Nutrition, 20(30).
47. Basak, S., Mallick, R., Sree, B. N., & Duttaroy, A. K. (2024). Placental epigenome impacts fetal development: Effects of maternal nutrients and gut microbiota. Nutrients, 16(12), 1860.
48. Fayyaz, K., & Khalid, N. (2025). Precision nutrition: Paving the path from potential to practice through systems science and ethical translation. Nutrition and Health, 31(4).
49. Petre, M. L., Tsichla, H., & Kontouli-Pertesi, A. N. (2025). Precision nutrition: Is tailor-made dietary intervention a reality yet? Biomedical Reports, 22(5), 86.
50. Ramsay, M., Crowther, N., Tambo, E., Agongo, G., Baloyi, V., Dikilitas, O., Gómez-Olivé, F. X., Jaff, N., Sorgho, H., Wagner, R. G., et al. (2018). Common and founder mutations for monogenic traits in Sub-Saharan African populations. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 19, 149–175.
51. Bailey, L. B., Stover, P. J., McNulty, H., Fenech, M. F., Gregory, J. F., Mills, J. L., Pfeiffer, C. M., Fazili, Z., Zhang, M., Ueland, P. M., Molloy, A. M., Caudill, M. A., Shane, B., Berry, R. J., Bailey, R. L., Hausman, D. B., Raghavan, R., & Raiten, D. J. (2015). Biomarkers of nutrition for development—Folate review. Journal of Nutrition, 145(7), 1636S–1680S.
52. Stover, P. J. (2022). One-carbon metabolism–genome interactions in folate-associated pathologies. Journal of Nutrition, 152(Suppl. 1), 13S–20S.
53. Caffrey, A., McNulty, H., Rollins, M., Prasad, G., & Gaur, P. (2024). Folate metabolism, MTHFR polymorphisms, and pregnancy outcomes: Recent advances. Nutrients, 16(4), 521.
54. Molloy, A. M., Kirke, P. N., Troendle, J. F., et al. (2018). Maternal folate status and pregnancy outcomes. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 107(6), 965–973.
55. Michèle Ramsay, Crowther, N., Tambo, E., Agongo, G., Baloyi, V., Dikilitas, O., Gómez-Olivé, F. X., Jaff, N., Sorgho, H., Wagner, R. G., et al. (2018). Common and founder mutations for monogenic traits in Sub-Saharan African populations. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 19, 149–175.
56. Blencowe, H., Kancherla, V., Moorthie, S., Darlison, M. W., & Modell, B. (2018). Estimates of global and regional prevalence of neural tube defects. Birth Defects Research, 110(19), 1430–1443.
57. Yang, M., Wang, X., Wu, Y., Zhang, L., Li, F., & Yang, X. (2023). Association between maternal MTHFR polymorphisms and neural tube defects: Updated meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23, 611.
58. Crider, K. S., Devine, O., Hao, L., Dowling, N. F., Li, S., Molloy, A. M., Li, Z., Zhu, J., Berry, R. J., & others. (2014). Population red blood cell folate concentrations and neural tube defect prevention. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 99(4), 956–961.
59. Kancherla, V., Wagh, K., Johnson, Q., & Oakley, G. P. (2022). Folic acid fortification in Africa: Progress and challenges. Nutrients, 14(8), 1645.
60. Ray, J. G., & Laskin, C. A. (2019). Folic acid and homocysteine metabolism in obstetric complications. Clinical Biochemistry, 52, 1–8.
61. Cao, Y., Xu, J., Zhang, Z., Huang, X., Sun, Y., Wang, J., & Gao, Y. (2021). MTHFR gene polymorphisms and recurrent pregnancy loss: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Genetics, 12, 689459.
62. Wang, X., Wang, J., Zhang, L., & Zhao, H. (2022). Association of MTHFR C677T polymorphism with preeclampsia susceptibility: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Pregnancy Hypertension, 29, 94–101.
63. Bergen, N. E., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Timmermans, S., Hofman, A., Lindemans, J., Russcher, H., & Steegers, E. A. P. (2012). Homocysteine and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 119(4), 711–719.
64. Nelen, W. L. D. M. (2019). Hyperhomocysteinemia and placental disorders. Human Reproduction Update, 25(5), 593–609.
65. World Health Organization. (2023). WHO recommendations on maternal nutrition and antenatal care. Geneva: World Health Organization.
66. Scaglione, F., & Panzavolta, G. (2014). Folate, folic acid and 5-methyltetrahydrofolate: Are they equivalent? Xenobiotica, 44(5), 480–488.
67. Ferguson, L. R., & Mathers, J. C. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in reproductive health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
68. Means, R. T. (2023). Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia in pregnancy: Advances in diagnosis and management. Hematology Reports, 15(2), 112–121.
69. Stevens, G. A., Finucane, M. M., De-Regil, L. M., Paciorek, C. J., Flaxman, S. R., Branca, F., Peña-Rosas, J. P., Bhutta, Z. A., & Ezzati, M. (2022). Global, regional, and national trends in haemoglobin concentration and prevalence of anemia. The Lancet Global Health, 10(5), e627–e639.
70. World Health Organization. (2024). WHO guideline on daily iron and folic acid supplementation during pregnancy. Geneva: World Health Organization.
71. Ganz, T., & Nemeth, E. (2023). Iron homeostasis in host defence and inflammation. Nature Reviews Immunology, 23(8), 499–512.
72. Fisher, A. L., Nemeth, E., & Ganz, T. (2023). Regulation of iron metabolism during pregnancy. American Journal of Hematology, 98(4), 571–580.
73. Pietrangelo, A. (2019). Hereditary hemochromatosis: Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment. Gastroenterology, 156(2), 332–345.
74. Brissot, P., Troadec, M. B., Bardou-Jacquet, E., & Loréal, O. (2018). Current approach to hemochromatosis. Blood Reviews, 32(4), 303–315.
75. Gurrin, L. C., Bertalli, N. A., Dalton, G. W., Osborne, N. J., Constantine, C. C., McLaren, C. E., English, D. R., Gertig, D. M., Delatycki, M. B., Olynyk, J. K., Allen, K. J., & Anderson, G. J. (2020). HFE mutations and iron status in population studies. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 112(6), 1570–1578.
76. Anderson, G. J., Frazer, D. M., & McLaren, G. D. (2022). Iron absorption and regulation in health and disease. Physiological Reviews, 102(2), 995–1040.
77. Michèle Ramsay et al. (2018). Common and founder mutations for monogenic traits in Sub-Saharan African populations. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 19, 149–175.
78. Peña-Rosas, J. P., De-Regil, L. M., Garcia-Casal, M. N., & Dowswell, T. (2015). Daily oral iron supplementation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 7, CD004736.
79. Young, M. F., Oaks, B. M., Tandon, S., Martorell, R., Dewey, K. G., & Wendt, A. S. (2019). Maternal hemoglobin concentrations and birth outcomes. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 109(Suppl. 1), 743S–754S.
80. Allen, L. H. (2020). Anemia and iron deficiency: Effects on pregnancy outcome. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 71(5), 1280S–1284S.
81. Georgieff, M. K. (2023). Iron deficiency in pregnancy and long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes. Nutrients, 15(3), 615.
82. Benyamin, B., Ferreira, M. A. R., Willemsen, G., Gordon, S., Middelberg, R. P. S., McEvoy, B. P., Hottenga, J. J., Henders, A. K., Campbell, M. J., Wallace, L., et al. (2009). Common variants in TMPRSS6 and iron status. Nature Genetics, 41(11), 1173–1175.
83. Gambling, L., Andersen, H. S., & McArdle, H. J. (2019). Iron and copper transport across the placenta. Nutrition Reviews, 76(1), 52–63.
84. Zimmermann, M. B., & Hurrell, R. F. (2021). Nutritional iron deficiency and genetic influences. The Lancet Haematology, 8(3), e171–e180.
85. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2173.
86. Roth, D. E., Abrams, S. A., Aloia, J., Bergeron, G., Bourassa, M. W., Brown, K. H., Calvo, M. S., Cashman, K. D., Combs, G., De-Regil, L. M., et al. (2018). Global prevalence and disease burden of vitamin D deficiency. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 14(4), 231–242.
87. Holick, M. F. (2017). The vitamin D deficiency pandemic: Approaches for diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders, 18(2), 153–165.
88. Carlberg, C., & Haq, A. (2022). The concept of the personal vitamin D response index. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 219, 106084.
89. Tamblyn, J. A., Hewison, M., Wagner, C. L., Bulmer, J. N., Kilby, M. D., & Johnson, D. D. (2017). Immunological role of vitamin D at the maternal-fetal interface. Journal of Endocrinology, 232(2), R107–R124.
90. Uitterlinden, A. G., Fang, Y., Van Meurs, J. B. J., Pols, H. A. P., & Van Leeuwen, J. P. T. M. (2004). Genetics and biology of vitamin D receptor polymorphisms. Gene, 338(2), 143–156.
91. Kovacs, C. S. (2021). Maternal mineral and bone metabolism during pregnancy and lactation. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America, 50(1), 89–108.
92. Bouillon, R., Marcocci, C., Carmeliet, G., Bikle, D., White, J. H., Dawson-Hughes, B., Lips, P., Munns, C. F., Lazaretti-Castro, M., Giustina, A., et al. (2019). Skeletal and extraskeletal actions of vitamin D. Endocrine Reviews, 40(4), 1109–1151.
93. Valdivielso, J. M., & Fernandez, E. (2020). Vitamin D receptor polymorphisms and bone health. Clinical Kidney Journal, 13(3), 333–341.
94. Wei, S. Q. (2018). Vitamin D and pregnancy outcomes. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 30(6), 465–470.
95. Mogire, R. M., Mutua, A., Kimita, W., Kamau, A., Bejon, P., Pettifor, J. M., Adeyemo, A., Williams, T. N., & Atkinson, S. H. (2020). Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Global Health, 8(1), e134–e142.
96. Javaid, M. K., Crozier, S. R., Harvey, N. C., Gale, C. R., Dennison, E. M., Boucher, B. J., Arden, N. K., Godfrey, K. M., & Cooper, C. (2006). Maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy and childhood bone mass. Lancet, 367(9504), 36–43.
97. Curtis, E. M., Moon, R. J., Harvey, N. C., & Cooper, C. (2018). Maternal vitamin D supplementation and offspring bone health. Current Osteoporosis Reports, 16(3), 213–220.
98. Sayers, A., Tobias, J. H., & Lawlor, D. A. (2017). Maternal vitamin D status, VDR genotype and offspring skeletal development. Bone, 103, 1–8.
99. Kovacs, C. S. (2016). Maternal vitamin D deficiency: Fetal and neonatal implications. Seminars in Fetal and Neonatal Medicine, 21(3), 137–145.
100. Hollis, B. W., & Wagner, C. L. (2017). Vitamin D and pregnancy: Skeletal and nonskeletal outcomes. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity, 24(6), 389–394.
101. Palacios, C., Kostiuk, L. K., & Peña-Rosas, J. P. (2019). Vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 7, CD008873.
102. Elkum, N., Alkayal, F., Noronha, F., Ali, M. M., Melhem, M., Al-Arouj, M., Bennakhi, A., Behbehani, K., & Abubaker, J. (2014). Vitamin D insufficiency and VDR genetic variation. PLoS ONE, 9(8), e104769.
103. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2173.
104. Bailey, R. L., West, K. P., & Black, R. E. (2015). The epidemiology of global micronutrient deficiencies. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 66(Suppl. 2), 22–33. https://doi.org/10.1159/000371618
105. Ferguson, L. R., De Caterina, R., Görman, U., Allayee, H., Kohlmeier, M., Prasad, C., Choi, M. S., Curi, R., De Luis, D. A., Gil, Á., et al. (2016). Guide and position of the International Society of Nutrigenetics/Nutrigenomics on personalised nutrition. Journal of Nutrigenetics and Nutrigenomics, 9(1), 12–27. https://doi.org/10.1159/000445350
106. King, J. C., Brown, K. H., Gibson, R. S., Krebs, N. F., Lowe, N. M., Siekmann, J. H., & Raiten, D. J. (2016). Biomarkers of nutrition for development (BOND)—Zinc review. Journal of Nutrition, 146(4), 858S–885S. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.115.220079
107. Prasad, A. S. (2013). Discovery of human zinc deficiency and studies in an experimental human model. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(3), 712S–716S.
108. Kambe, T., Tsuji, T., Hashimoto, A., & Itsumura, N. (2015). The physiological, biochemical, and molecular roles of zinc transporters in zinc homeostasis and metabolism. Physiological Reviews, 95(3), 749–784. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00035.2014
109. Hennigar, S. R., Kelleher, S. L., & McClung, J. P. (2017). Zinc network biology and precision nutrition. Nutrients, 9(8), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9080815
110. Rayman, M. P. (2012). Selenium and human health. The Lancet, 379(9822), 1256–1268. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61452-9
111. Roman, M., Jitaru, P., & Barbante, C. (2014). Selenium biochemistry and its role for human health. Metallomics, 6(1), 25–54. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3MT00185G
112. Pieczyńska, J., & Grajeta, H. (2015). The role of selenium in human conception and pregnancy. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 29, 31–38.
113. Méplan, C. (2015). Selenium and chronic diseases: A nutritional genomics perspective. Nutrients, 7(5), 3621–3651. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu7053621
114. Mistry, H. D., Kurlak, L. O., Young, S. D., Briley, A. L., Pipkin, F. B., Baker, P. N., & Poston, L. (2014). Maternal selenium status and pregnancy outcome. British Journal of Nutrition, 112(3), 442–450.
115. Shankar, A. H., & Prasad, A. S. (1998). Zinc and immune function: The biological basis of altered resistance to infection. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 68(2), 447S–463S.
116. Hess, S. Y., King, J. C., & Brown, K. H. (2009). Zinc supplementation and pregnancy outcomes. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 30(1 Suppl.), S60–S78.
117. Avery, J. C., & Hoffmann, P. R. (2018). Selenium, selenoproteins, and immunity. Nutrients, 10(9), 1203. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10091203
118. Hoffmann, P. R., & Berry, M. J. (2008). The influence of selenium on immune responses. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 52(11), 1273–1280.
119. Black, R. E. (2001). Zinc deficiency, infectious disease and mortality in the developing world. Journal of Nutrition, 131(2), 568S–574S.
120. Hofstee, P., McKeating, D. R., Perkins, A. V., & Cuffe, J. S. M. (2018). Selenium deficiency in pregnancy: Implications for fetal growth and development. Nutrients, 10(10), 1368.
121. Ota, E., Mori, R., Middleton, P., Tobe-Gai, R., Mahomed, K., & Miyazaki, C. (2015). Zinc supplementation for improving pregnancy and infant outcomes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2015(2), CD000230.
122. Xu, H., Perez-Cuevas, R., Xiong, X., Reyes, H., Roy, C., Julien, P., Smith, G., von Dadelszen, P., & Leduc, L. (2016). Maternal selenium status and preterm birth risk. Nutrition Reviews, 74(10), 647–660.
123. Rayman, M. P., Bode, P., & Redman, C. W. G. (2003). Low selenium status is associated with preeclampsia. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 110(10), 925–928.
124. Ullah, M. I., Koch, C. A., Tamanna, S., Rouf, S., & Shamsuddin, L. (2013). Zinc and selenium levels in preeclampsia. Biological Trace Element Research, 154(2), 178–184.
125. Christian, P., & Stewart, C. P. (2010). Maternal micronutrient deficiency and child growth and development. Journal of Nutrition, 140(3), 437–445.
126. Zimmermann, M. B. (2012). The effects of iodine deficiency in pregnancy and infancy. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 26(Suppl. 1), 108–117.
127. Clagett-Dame, M., & DeLuca, H. F. (2002). The role of vitamin A in mammalian reproduction and embryonic development. Annual Review of Nutrition, 22, 347–381.
128. Caudill, M. A. (2010). Pre- and postnatal health: Evidence of increased choline needs. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 110(8), 1198–1206.
129. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2173. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k2173
130. Bird, A. (2017). Perceptions of epigenetics. Nature, 447(7143), 396–398.
131. Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Buklijas, T. (2010). A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 1(1), 6–18.
132. Vaiserman, A., & Lushchak, O. (2021). Developmental origins of health and disease: Epigenetic mechanisms. Frontiers in Genetics, 12, 705844.
133. Moore, L. D., Le, T., & Fan, G. (2018). DNA methylation and its basic function. Neuropsychopharmacology, 38(1), 23–38.
134. Stover, P. J. (2022). One-carbon metabolism–genome interactions in folate-associated pathologies. Journal of Nutrition, 152(Suppl. 1), 13S–20S.
135. Lillycrop, K. A., & Burdge, G. C. (2023). Nutrition, epigenetics, and developmental programming. Annual Review of Nutrition, 43, 95–118.
136. Tobi, E. W., Slieker, R. C., Stein, A. D., Suchiman, H. E. D., & Heijmans, B. T. (2018). Insights from the Dutch famine studies. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 14(3), 183–195.
137. Godfrey, K. M., Costello, P. M., & Lillycrop, K. A. (2021). The developmental environment, epigenetic biomarkers and long-term health. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 12(1), 4–9.
138. Bannister, A. J., & Kouzarides, T. (2017). Regulation of chromatin by histone modifications. Cell Research, 21(3), 381–395.
139. Maccani, M. A., & Marsit, C. J. (2019). Epigenetics in the placenta. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 62(2), 78–89.
140. Fleming, T. P., Watkins, A. J., Velazquez, M. A., et al. (2018). Origins of lifetime health around the time of conception. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 14(7), 403–413.
141. Barker, D. J. P. (1995). Fetal origins of coronary heart disease. BMJ, 311(6998), 171–174.
142. Black, R. E., Victora, C. G., Walker, S. P., et al. (2013). Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 382(9890), 427–451.
143. Godfrey, K. M., Reynolds, R. M., Prescott, S. L., et al. (2017). Influence of maternal obesity on offspring health. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 5(1), 53–64.
144. Bailey, L. B., Stover, P. J., McNulty, H., et al. (2015). Biomarkers of nutrition for development—Folate review. Journal of Nutrition, 145(7), 1636S–1680S.
145. Zeisel, S. H. (2017). Choline, other methyl-donors and epigenetics. Nutrition Reviews, 69(Suppl. 2), S131–S136.
146. Burton, G. J., & Fowden, A. L. (2015). The placenta and developmental programming. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 11(7), 412–425.
147. Basak, S., Mallick, R., Sree, B. N., & Duttaroy, A. K. (2024). Placental epigenome impacts fetal development: Effects of maternal nutrients and gut microbiota. Nutrients, 16(12), 1860.
148. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
149. Ferguson, L. R., De Caterina, R., Görman, U., et al. (2016). Guide and position of the International Society of Nutrigenetics/Nutrigenomics on personalised nutrition. Journal of Nutrigenetics and Nutrigenomics, 9(1), 12–27.
150. Sirugo, G., Williams, S. M., & Tishkoff, S. A. (2019). The missing diversity in human genetic studies. Cell, 177(1), 26–31.
151. Human Heredity and Health in Africa Consortium. (2014). Enabling the genomic revolution in Africa. Science, 344(6190), 1346–1348.
152. Rotimi, C., Abayomi, A., Abimiku, A., et al. (2022). Research capacity building and genomics in Africa. Nature Medicine, 28(1), 29–35.
153. Ramsay, M., Crowther, N., Agongo, G., et al. (2018). Regional genomic research advances in South Africa. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 19, 149–175.
154. Agyemang, C., Meeks, K., Beune, E., et al. (2016). Obesity and cardiometabolic risk among African populations. Global Health Action, 9(1), 31026.
155. Mogire, R. M., Mutua, A., Kimita, W., et al. (2020). Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Global Health, 8(1), e134–e142.
156. Adeyemo, A., Rotimi, C., & colleagues. (2021). Genomic studies and health research in Nigeria. Human Heredity, 86(3), 105–118.
157. Mulder, N., Adebamowo, C., Adebamowo, S. N., et al. (2018). H3Africa: Current perspectives. Current Opinion in Genetics & Development, 53, 77–84.
158. Tishkoff, S. A., Reed, F. A., Friedlaender, F. R., et al. (2009). The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans. Science, 324(5930), 1035–1044.
159. Rotimi, C. N., & Jorde, L. B. (2010). Ancestry and disease in the age of genomic medicine. New England Journal of Medicine, 363(16), 1551–1558.
160. Botto, L. D., Yang, Q., & others. (2018). MTHFR polymorphisms and birth defects: Population variations. American Journal of Epidemiology, 151(9), 862–877.
161. Kancherla, V., Wagh, K., Johnson, Q., & Oakley, G. P. (2022). Folic acid fortification in Africa: Progress and challenges. Nutrients, 14(8), 1645.
162. Prentice, A. M., Mendoza, Y. A., Pereira, D., Cerami, C., Wegmuller, R., Constable, A., & Spieldenner, J. (2017). Dietary strategies for improving iron status in Africa. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1312(1), 129–138.
163. Zimmermann, M. B., & Hurrell, R. F. (2021). Nutritional iron deficiency and genetic influences. The Lancet Haematology, 8(3), e171–e180.
164. Elkum, N., Alkayal, F., Noronha, F., et al. (2014). Vitamin D insufficiency and VDR genetic variation. PLoS ONE, 9(8), e104769.
165. Lillycrop, K. A., & Burdge, G. C. (2023). Nutrition, epigenetics, and developmental programming. Annual Review of Nutrition, 43, 95–118.
166. Dominguez-Salas, P., Moore, S. E., Baker, M. S., et al. (2014). Maternal nutrition at conception modulates DNA methylation in humans. Nature Communications, 5, 3746.
167. Agyemang, C., & Owusu-Dabo, E. (2018). Nutrition transition and non-communicable diseases in Africa. Globalization and Health, 14(1), 41.
168. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2173.
169. Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Buklijas, T. (2010). A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 1(1), 6–18.
170. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
171. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2173.
172. Sirugo, G., Williams, S. M., & Tishkoff, S. A. (2019). The missing diversity in human genetic studies. Cell, 177(1), 26–31.
173. Tishkoff, S. A., Reed, F. A., Friedlaender, F. R., et al. (2009). The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans. Science, 324(5930), 1035–1044.
174. Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Buklijas, T. (2010). A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 1(1), 6–18.
175. Dominguez-Salas, P., Moore, S. E., Baker, M. S., et al. (2014). Maternal nutrition at conception modulates DNA methylation in humans. Nature Communications, 5, 3746.
176. Zimmermann, M. B., & Hurrell, R. F. (2021). Nutritional iron deficiency and genetic influences. The Lancet Haematology, 8(3), e171–e180.
177. Human Heredity and Health in Africa Consortium. (2014). Enabling the genomic revolution in Africa. Science, 344(6190), 1346–1348.
178. World Health Organization. (2023). WHO recommendations on maternal nutrition and antenatal care. Geneva: World Health Organization.
179. Rotimi, C., Abayomi, A., Abimiku, A., et al. (2022). Research capacity building and genomics in Africa. Nature Medicine, 28(1), 29–35.
180. Black, R. E., Victora, C. G., Walker, S. P., et al. (2013). Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 382(9890), 427–451.
181. Tishkoff, S. A., & Verrelli, B. C. (2021). Patterns of human genetic diversity in Africa. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 4, 293–340.
182. Hanson, M. A., Bardsley, A., De-Regil, L. M., et al. (2015). The health of the world's adolescents: A call for action. The Lancet, 385(9986), 2410–2421.
183. Popkin, B. M., Corvalan, C., & Grummer-Strawn, L. M. (2020). Dynamics of the double burden of malnutrition. The Lancet, 395(10217), 65–74.
184. Slogrove, A. L., Sohn, A. H., & Powis, K. M. (2020). HIV-exposed uninfected children and maternal health. Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 4(11), 829–839.
185. Black, R. E., Allen, L. H., Bhutta, Z. A., et al. (2018). Maternal and child undernutrition in humanitarian settings. The Lancet, 371(9608), 243–260.
186. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
187. World Health Organization. (2024). Anaemia in women and children: Global estimates. Geneva: World Health Organization.
188. Means, R. T. (2023). Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia in pregnancy. Hematology Reports, 15(2), 112–121.
189. Ganz, T., & Nemeth, E. (2023). Iron homeostasis in health and disease. Physiological Reviews, 103(2), 995–1040.
190. Bailey, L. B., Stover, P. J., McNulty, H., et al. (2015). Biomarkers of nutrition for development—Folate review. Journal of Nutrition, 145(7), 1636S–1680S.
191. Stevens, G. A., Finucane, M. M., De-Regil, L. M., et al. (2022). Global trends in anemia prevalence. The Lancet Global Health, 10(5), e627–e639.
192. Duley, L. (2019). The global impact of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia. Seminars in Perinatology, 33(3), 130–137.
193. Wang, X., Wang, J., Zhang, L., & Zhao, H. (2022). Association of MTHFR polymorphism with preeclampsia susceptibility. Pregnancy Hypertension, 29, 94–101.
194. Rayman, M. P., & Bath, S. C. (2022). Selenium and pregnancy outcomes. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 81(1), 74–85.
195. Wei, S. Q. (2018). Vitamin D and pregnancy outcomes. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 30(6), 465–470.
196. Leavey, K., Benton, S. J., Grynspan, D., Kingdom, J. C., Bainbridge, S. A., & Cox, B. J. (2018). Epigenetic mechanisms in preeclampsia. Clinical Epigenetics, 10(1), 22.
197. International Diabetes Federation. (2024). Diabetes Atlas (11th ed.). Brussels: International Diabetes Federation.
198. McCarthy, M. I. (2017). Genomics, type 2 diabetes, and obesity. New England Journal of Medicine, 363(24), 2339–2350.
199. Lowe, W. L., Bain, J. R., Nodzenski, M., et al. (2019). Maternal metabolism and epigenetic programming in gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care, 42(3), 443–452.
200. Zhang, C., Rawal, S., & Chong, Y. S. (2016). Risk factors for gestational diabetes: Nutritional and genetic considerations. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 4(7), 593–603.
201. World Health Organization. (2024). Trends in maternal mortality 2000–2023. Geneva: World Health Organization.
202. Zimmermann, M. B., & Hurrell, R. F. (2021). Nutritional iron deficiency and genetic influences. The Lancet Haematology, 8(3), e171–e180.
203. Black, R. E., Victora, C. G., Walker, S. P., et al. (2013). Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight. The Lancet, 382(9890), 427–451.
204. Vaiserman, A., & Lushchak, O. (2021). Developmental origins of health and disease: Epigenetic mechanisms. Frontiers in Genetics, 12, 705844.
205. Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Buklijas, T. (2010). A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 1(1), 6–18.
206. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2023). Low birthweight estimates: Levels and trends. New York, NY: UNICEF.
207. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
208. Black, R. E., Victora, C. G., Walker, S. P., et al. (2013). Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 382(9890), 427–451.
209. Lillycrop, K. A., & Burdge, G. C. (2023). Nutrition, epigenetics, and developmental programming. Annual Review of Nutrition, 43, 95–118.
210. Christian, P., & Smith, E. R. (2018). Adolescent undernutrition and maternal-child outcomes. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 107(6), 857–866.
211. World Health Organization. (2023). Preterm birth fact sheet. Geneva: World Health Organization.
212. Wang, X., Wang, J., Zhang, L., & Zhao, H. (2022). Association of MTHFR polymorphism with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Pregnancy Hypertension, 29, 94–101.
213. Ota, E., Mori, R., Middleton, P., et al. (2015). Zinc supplementation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD000230.
214. Wei, S. Q. (2018). Vitamin D and pregnancy outcomes. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 30(6), 465–470.
215. Vaiserman, A., & Lushchak, O. (2021). Developmental origins of health and disease: Epigenetic mechanisms. Frontiers in Genetics, 12, 705844.
216. Greene, N. D. E., & Copp, A. J. (2014). Neural tube defects. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 37, 221–242.
217. Bailey, L. B., Stover, P. J., McNulty, H., et al. (2015). Biomarkers of nutrition for development—Folate review. Journal of Nutrition, 145(7), 1636S–1680S.
218. Botto, L. D., & Yang, Q. (2019). 5,10-Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene variants and neural tube defects. American Journal of Epidemiology, 151(9), 862–877.
219. Kancherla, V., Wagh, K., Johnson, Q., & Oakley, G. P. (2022). Folic acid fortification in Africa: Progress and challenges. Nutrients, 14(8), 1645.
220. Sharma, D., Shastri, S., & Sharma, P. (2016). Intrauterine growth restriction: Antenatal and postnatal aspects. Clinical Medicine Insights: Pediatrics, 10, 67–83.
221. Kramer, M. S. (2018). Determinants of low birth weight and intrauterine growth restriction. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 65(5), 663–737.
222. Barker, D. J. P. (2007). The origins of the developmental origins theory. Journal of Internal Medicine, 261(5), 412–417.
223. Tobi, E. W., Slieker, R. C., Stein, A. D., et al. (2018). Insights from the Dutch famine studies. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 14(3), 183–195.
224. Victora, C. G., Christian, P., Vidaletti, L. P., Gatica-Domínguez, G., Menon, P., & Black, R. E. (2021). Revisiting maternal and child undernutrition in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 397(10282), 1388–1399.
225. Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Buklijas, T. (2010). A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 1(1), 6–18.
226. Lillycrop, K. A., & Burdge, G. C. (2023). Nutrition, epigenetics, and developmental programming. Annual Review of Nutrition, 43, 95–118.
227. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2024). The state of the world's children 2024. New York, NY: UNICEF.
228. Black, R. E., Victora, C. G., Walker, S. P., et al. (2013). Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 382(9890), 427–451.
229. Waterland, R. A., & Michels, K. B. (2017). Epigenetic epidemiology of the developmental origins hypothesis. Annual Review of Nutrition, 27, 363–388.
230. Christian, P., & Smith, E. R. (2018). Adolescent undernutrition and maternal-child outcomes. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 107(6), 857–866.
231. Victora, C. G., Christian, P., Vidaletti, L. P., Gatica-Domínguez, G., Menon, P., & Black, R. E. (2021). Revisiting maternal and child undernutrition in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 397(10282), 1388–1399.
232. Dominguez-Salas, P., Moore, S. E., Baker, M. S., et al. (2014). Maternal nutrition at conception modulates DNA methylation in humans. Nature Communications, 5, 3746.
233. Barker, D. J. P. (2007). The origins of the developmental origins theory. Journal of Internal Medicine, 261(5), 412–417.
234. Hales, C. N., & Barker, D. J. P. (2013). Type 2 diabetes mellitus: The thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Diabetologia, 35(7), 595–601.
235. Godfrey, K. M., Costello, P. M., & Lillycrop, K. A. (2021). Developmental epigenetics and obesity. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 80(4), 473–482.
236. Godfrey, K. M., Reynolds, R. M., Prescott, S. L., et al. (2017). Influence of maternal obesity on offspring health. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 5(1), 53–64.
237. Popkin, B. M., Corvalan, C., & Grummer-Strawn, L. M. (2020). Dynamics of the double burden of malnutrition. The Lancet, 395(10217), 65–74.
238. Wells, J. C. K. (2018). The developmental origins of obesity and health disparities. Annual Review of Anthropology, 47, 1–17.
239. Hanson, M. A., & Gluckman, P. D. (2014). Early developmental conditioning of later health and disease. Physiological Reviews, 94(4), 1027–1076.
240. Barker, D. J. P. (1995). Fetal origins of coronary heart disease. BMJ, 311(6998), 171–174.
241. Thornburg, K. L., Shannon, J., Thuillier, P., & Turker, M. S. (2018). In utero life and cardiovascular disease. Journal of Physiology, 596(12), 2201–2211.
242. Stover, P. J. (2022). One-carbon metabolism and developmental programming. Journal of Nutrition, 152(Suppl. 1), 13S–20S.
243. Vaiserman, A., & Lushchak, O. (2021). Developmental origins of health and disease: Epigenetic mechanisms. Frontiers in Genetics, 12, 705844.
244. Georgieff, M. K. (2023). Micronutrients and fetal neurodevelopment. Nutrients, 15(5), 1024.
245. Fleming, T. P., Watkins, A. J., Velazquez, M. A., et al. (2018). Origins of lifetime health around the time of conception. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 14(7), 403–413.
246. Heijmans, B. T., & Tobi, E. W. (2020). Epigenetic inheritance and developmental programming. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 21, 329–352.
247. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
248. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
249. Rotimi, C., Abayomi, A., Abimiku, A., et al. (2022). Research capacity building and genomics in Africa. Nature Medicine, 28(1), 29–35.
250. Human Heredity and Health in Africa Consortium. (2014). Enabling the genomic revolution in Africa. Science, 344(6190), 1346–1348.
251. Mulder, N., Adebamowo, C., Adebamowo, S., et al. (2018). H3Africa: Current perspectives. Current Opinion in Genetics & Development, 53, 77–84.
252. Karikari, T. K., Quansah, E., Mohamed, W. M. Y., et al. (2015). Bioinformatics capacity in Africa. PLOS Computational Biology, 11(5), e1004303.
253. Ramsay, M., & H3Africa Consortium. (2019). Biobanking in Africa: Opportunities and challenges. Biopreservation and Biobanking, 17(3), 217–223.
254. Chu, K. M., Jayaraman, S., Kyamanywa, P., & Ntakiyiruta, G. (2014). Building research capacity in Africa. BMJ, 349, g6550.
255. Sirugo, G., Williams, S. M., & Tishkoff, S. A. (2019). The missing diversity in human genetic studies. Cell, 177(1), 26–31.
256. Whitworth, J. A., Kokwaro, G., Kinyanjui, S., et al. (2018). Strengthening capacity for health research in Africa. The Lancet, 372(9649), 1590–1593.
257. African Union. (2024). Science, technology and innovation strategy for Africa (STISA 2034). Addis Ababa: African Union Commission.
258. Tindana, P., de Vries, J., Campbell, M., et al. (2015). Community engagement and genomics research in Africa. BMC Medical Ethics, 16(1), 24.
259. Wetterstrand, K. A. (2024). DNA sequencing costs: Data from the NHGRI Genome Sequencing Program. National Human Genome Research Institute.
260. Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Buklijas, T. (2010). A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 1(1), 6–18.
261. Karikari, T. K., Aleksic, J., & Adebamowo, C. A. (2020). Building genomics and bioinformatics capacity in Africa. Nature Reviews Genetics, 21(10), 627–628.
262. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2173.
263. Rotimi, C., Abayomi, A., Abimiku, A., et al. (2022). Research capacity building and genomics in Africa. Nature Medicine, 28(1), 29–35.
264. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
265. Karikari, T. K., Aleksic, J., & Adebamowo, C. A. (2020). Building genomics and bioinformatics capacity in Africa. Nature Reviews Genetics, 21(10), 627–628.
266. Chu, K. M., Jayaraman, S., Kyamanywa, P., & Ntakiyiruta, G. (2014). Building research capacity in Africa. BMJ, 349, g6550.
267. Karikari, T. K., Quansah, E., Mohamed, W. M. Y., et al. (2015). Bioinformatics capacity in Africa. PLOS Computational Biology, 11(5), e1004303.
268. Mulder, N., Adebamowo, C., Adebamowo, S., et al. (2018). H3Africa: Current perspectives. Current Opinion in Genetics & Development, 53, 77–84.
269. Whitworth, J. A., Kokwaro, G., Kinyanjui, S., et al. (2018). Strengthening capacity for health research in Africa. The Lancet, 372(9649), 1590–1593.
270. Ramsay, M., & H3Africa Consortium. (2019). Biobanking in Africa: Opportunities and challenges. Biopreservation and Biobanking, 17(3), 217–223.
271. Human Heredity and Health in Africa Consortium. (2014). Enabling the genomic revolution in Africa. Science, 344(6190), 1346–1348.
272. Sirugo, G., Williams, S. M., & Tishkoff, S. A. (2019). The missing diversity in human genetic studies. Cell, 177(1), 26–31.
273. Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Buklijas, T. (2010). A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 1(1), 6–18.
274. Rotimi, C. N. (2021). Genomics and precision medicine in Africa. Nature Genetics, 53(6), 765–767.
275. Tindana, P., de Vries, J., Campbell, M., et al. (2015). Community engagement and genomics research in Africa. BMC Medical Ethics, 16(1), 24.
276. de Vries, J., Bull, S. J., Doumbo, O., et al. (2011). Ethical issues in genomic research in Africa. BMC Medical Ethics, 12(1), 18.
277. Knoppers, B. M. (2014). Framework for responsible sharing of genomic data. The HUGO Journal, 8(1), 3.
278. Tindana, P., Yakubu, A., Staunton, C., et al. (2020). Engaging African researchers in benefit sharing. Nature Genetics, 52(9), 901–903.
279. Marshall, P. A., Adebamowo, C. A., Adeyemo, A. A., et al. (2014). Community engagement in African genomic research. BMC Medical Ethics, 15(1), 79.
280. Staunton, C., Slokenberga, S., & Mascalzoni, D. (2019). Ethical and legal governance of genomic research. European Journal of Human Genetics, 27(10), 1465–1471.
281. World Health Organization. (2024). Health systems strengthening framework. Geneva: World Health Organization.
282. Kruk, M. E., Gage, A. D., Arsenault, C., et al. (2018). High-quality health systems in the SDG era. The Lancet Global Health, 6(11), e1196–e1252.
283. Black, R. E., Victora, C. G., Walker, S. P., et al. (2013). Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight. The Lancet, 382(9890), 427–451.
284. Rotimi, C. N., & Jorde, L. B. (2010). Ancestry and disease in the age of genomic medicine. New England Journal of Medicine, 363(16), 1551–1558.
285. Victora, C. G., Christian, P., Vidaletti, L. P., et al. (2021). Revisiting maternal and child undernutrition. The Lancet, 397(10282), 1388–1399.
286. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2173.
287. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
288. World Health Organization. (2023). WHO recommendations on maternal nutrition and antenatal care. Geneva: World Health Organization.
289. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2173.
290. Mathers, J. C. (2019). Nutrigenomics in the modern era of precision nutrition. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 78(3), 337–346.
291. Kancherla, V., Wagh, K., Johnson, Q., & Oakley, G. P. (2022). Folic acid fortification in Africa: Progress and challenges. Nutrients, 14(8), 1645.
292. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2023). Nutrition-sensitive food systems and policy frameworks. Rome: FAO.
293. Karikari, T. K., Aleksic, J., & Adebamowo, C. A. (2020). Building genomics and bioinformatics capacity in Africa. Nature Reviews Genetics, 21(10), 627–628.
294. Rotimi, C., Abayomi, A., Abimiku, A., et al. (2022). Research capacity building and genomics in Africa. Nature Medicine, 28(1), 29–35.
295. Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Buklijas, T. (2010). A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 1(1), 6–18.
296. Chu, K. M., Jayaraman, S., Kyamanywa, P., & Ntakiyiruta, G. (2014). Building research capacity in Africa. BMJ, 349, g6550.
297. Mulder, N., Adebamowo, C., Adebamowo, S., et al. (2018). H3Africa: Current perspectives. Current Opinion in Genetics & Development, 53, 77–84.
298. Sirugo, G., Williams, S. M., & Tishkoff, S. A. (2019). The missing diversity in human genetic studies. Cell, 177(1), 26–31.
299. Rotimi, C. N. (2021). Genomics and precision medicine in Africa. Nature Genetics, 53(6), 765–767.
300. Knoppers, B. M. (2014). Framework for responsible sharing of genomic data. The HUGO Journal, 8(1), 3.
301. World Health Organization. (2024). Global strategy on digital health 2020–2025. Geneva: World Health Organization.
302. Hanson, M. A., & Gluckman, P. D. (2014). Early developmental conditioning of later health and disease. Physiological Reviews, 94(4), 1027–1076.
303. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2173.
304. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
305. Sirugo, G., Williams, S. M., & Tishkoff, S. A. (2019). The missing diversity in human genetic studies. Cell, 177(1), 26–31.
306. Mathers, J. C. (2019). Nutrigenomics in the modern era of precision nutrition. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 78(3), 337–346.
307. Lillycrop, K. A., & Burdge, G. C. (2023). Nutrition, epigenetics, and developmental programming. Annual Review of Nutrition, 43, 95–118.
308. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2023). Nutrition-sensitive food systems and policy frameworks. Rome: FAO.
309. World Economic Forum. (2023). Public-private collaboration for health innovation. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
310. Rotimi, C., Abayomi, A., Abimiku, A., et al. (2022). Research capacity building and genomics in Africa. Nature Medicine, 28(1), 29–35.
311. Mulder, N., Adebamowo, C., Adebamowo, S., et al. (2018). H3Africa: Current perspectives. Current Opinion in Genetics & Development, 53, 77–84.
312. World Health Organization. (2023). Nutrition and food fortification strategies. Geneva: World Health Organization.
313. Tindana, P., Yakubu, A., Staunton, C., et al. (2020). Engaging African researchers in benefit sharing. Nature Genetics, 52(9), 901–903.
314. World Health Organization. (2024). Global strategy on digital health 2020–2025. Geneva: World Health Organization.
315. Topol, E. J. (2019). High-performance medicine: The convergence of human and artificial intelligence. Nature Medicine, 25(1), 44–56.
316. Beam, A. L., & Kohane, I. S. (2018). Big data and machine learning in health care. JAMA, 319(13), 1317–1318.
317. Labrique, A. B., Vasudevan, L., Kochi, E., Fabricant, R., & Mehl, G. (2018). mHealth innovations as health system strengthening tools. Global Health: Science and Practice, 1(2), 160–171.
318. Knoppers, B. M. (2014). Framework for responsible sharing of genomic data. The HUGO Journal, 8(1), 3.
319. Rotimi, C. N. (2021). Genomics and precision medicine in Africa. Nature Genetics, 53(6), 765–767.
320. Hanson, M. A., & Gluckman, P. D. (2014). Early developmental conditioning of later health and disease. Physiological Reviews, 94(4), 1027–1076.
321. Rotimi, C., Abayomi, A., Abimiku, A., et al. (2022). Research capacity building and genomics in Africa. Nature Medicine, 28(1), 29–35.
322. Mulder, N., Adebamowo, C., Adebamowo, S., et al. (2018). H3Africa: Current perspectives. Current Opinion in Genetics & Development, 53, 77–84.
323. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2173.
324. Kancherla, V., Wagh, K., Johnson, Q., & Oakley, G. P. (2022). Folic acid fortification in Africa: Progress and challenges. Nutrients, 14(8), 1645.
325. Knoppers, B. M. (2014). Framework for responsible sharing of genomic data. The HUGO Journal, 8(1), 3.
326. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
327. Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Buklijas, T. (2010). A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 1(1), 6–18.
328. Karikari, T. K., Aleksic, J., & Adebamowo, C. A. (2020). Building genomics and bioinformatics capacity in Africa. Nature Reviews Genetics, 21(10), 627–628.
329. Rotimi, C. N. (2021). Genomics and precision medicine in Africa. Nature Genetics, 53(6), 765–767.
330. Sirugo, G., Williams, S. M., & Tishkoff, S. A. (2019). The missing diversity in human genetic studies. Cell, 177(1), 26–31.
331. World Health Organization. (2023). WHO recommendations on maternal nutrition and antenatal care. Geneva: World Health Organization.
332. Mathers, J. C. (2019). Nutrigenomics in the modern era of precision nutrition. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 78(3), 337–346.
333. Black, R. E., Victora, C. G., Walker, S. P., et al. (2013). Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 382(9890), 427–451.
334. Victora, C. G., Christian, P., Vidaletti, L. P., et al. (2021). Revisiting maternal and child undernutrition in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 397(10282), 1388–1399.
335. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. (2024). Global investments in maternal and child health research.
336. Karikari, T. K., Quansah, E., Mohamed, W. M. Y., et al. (2015). Bioinformatics capacity in Africa. PLOS Computational Biology, 11(5), e1004303.
337. Human Heredity and Health in Africa Consortium. (2014). Enabling the genomic revolution in Africa. Science, 344(6190), 1346–1348.
338. Tindana, P., Yakubu, A., Staunton, C., et al. (2020). Engaging African researchers in benefit sharing. Nature Genetics, 52(9), 901–903.
339. Chu, K. M., Jayaraman, S., Kyamanywa, P., & Ntakiyiruta, G. (2014). Building research capacity in Africa. BMJ, 349, g6550.
340. Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Buklijas, T. (2010). A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 1(1), 6–18.
341. Hanson, M. A., & Gluckman, P. D. (2014). Early developmental conditioning of later health and disease. Physiological Reviews, 94(4), 1027–1076.
342. Sirugo, G., Williams, S. M., & Tishkoff, S. A. (2019). The missing diversity in human genetic studies. Cell, 177(1), 26–31.
343. Ferguson, L. R. (2023). Nutrigenomics and precision nutrition in maternal and child health. Nutrients, 15(8), 1852.
344. Human Heredity and Health in Africa Consortium. (2014). Enabling the genomic revolution in Africa. Science, 344(6190), 1346–1348.
345. Ordovas, J. M., Ferguson, L. R., Tai, E. S., & Mathers, J. C. (2018). Personalised nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2173.
346. Rotimi, C. N. (2021). Genomics and precision medicine in Africa. Nature Genetics, 53(6), 765–767.