Authors : Voon Han En; Ting Tiew Wei

Volume/Issue : Volume 11 - 2026, Issue 10 - October

---

Google Scholar : https://tinyurl.com/2zkfkvkv

DOI : https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/26Oct481

Note : A published paper may take 4-5 working days from the publication date to appear in PlumX Metrics, Semantic Scholar, and ResearchGate.

---

Abstract : Nanofluids have attracted considerable interest because of their enhanced heat transfer characteristics. Viscosity is a key thermophysical property of nanofluids because it governs pressure drop and the pumping power required by a thermal system, yet the accuracy of existing correlations depends on the fluid composition and operating conditions. This study aims to characterise the viscosity of water-based graphene nanoplatelet (GnP) nanofluids experimentally, to assess existing viscosity correlations and to propose a modified correlation.

Keywords : Graphene Nanoplatelets, Nanofluids, Viscosity, Viscosity Correlation, Particle Size.

References :

1. P. C. Mishra, S. Mukherjee, S. K. Nayak, and A. Panda, "A brief review on viscosity of nanofluids," International Nano Letters, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 109–120, 2014, doi: 10.1007/s40089-014-0126-3.
2. S. U. S. Choi, "Enhancing thermal conductivity of fluids with nanoparticles," in Developments and Applications of Non-Newtonian Flows, FED-Vol. 231/MD-Vol. 66. ASME, 1995, pp. 99–105, doi: 10.1115/IMECE1995-0926.
3. W. Yu and H. Xie, "A review on nanofluids: Preparation, stability mechanisms, and applications," Journal of Nanomaterials, vol. 2012, Art. no. 435873, 2012, doi: 10.1155/2012/435873.
4. K. S. Novoselov, A. K. Geim, S. V. Morozov, D. Jiang, Y. Zhang, S. V. Dubonos, I. V. Grigorieva, and A. A. Firsov, "Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films," Science, vol. 306, no. 5696, pp. 666–669, 2004, doi: 10.1126/science.1102896.
5. A. A. Balandin, "Thermal properties of graphene and nanostructured carbon materials," Nature Materials, vol. 10, no. 8, pp. 569–581, 2011, doi: 10.1038/nmat3064.
6. H. M. Ali and W. Arshad, "Effect of channel angle of pin-fin heat sink on heat transfer performance using water based graphene nanoplatelets nanofluids," International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 106, pp. 465–472, 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.08.061.
7. C. Selvam, D. M. Lal, and S. Harish, "Enhanced heat transfer performance of an automobile radiator with graphene based suspensions," Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 123, pp. 50–60, 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.05.076.
8. J. P. Vallejo, E. Álvarez-Regueiro, D. Cabaleiro, J. Fernández-Seara, J. Fernández, and L. Lugo, "Functionalized graphene nanoplatelet nanofluids based on a commercial industrial antifreeze for the thermal performance enhancement of wind turbines," Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 152, pp. 113–125, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.02.046.
9. M. Mehrali, E. Sadeghinezhad, S. Tahan Latibari, S. N. Kazi, M. Mehrali, M. N. B. M. Zubir, and H. S. C. Metselaar, "Investigation of thermal conductivity and rheological properties of nanofluids containing graphene nanoplatelets," Nanoscale Research Letters, vol. 9, no. 1, Art. no. 15, 2014, doi: 10.1186/1556-276X-9-15.
10. E. Sadeghinezhad, H. Togun, M. Mehrali, P. Sadeghi Nejad, S. Tahan Latibari, T. Abdulrazzaq, S. N. Kazi, and H. S. C. Metselaar, "An experimental and numerical investigation of heat transfer enhancement for graphene nanoplatelets nanofluids in turbulent flow conditions," International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 81, pp. 41–51, 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2014.10.006.
11. W. S. Sarsam, A. Amiri, M. N. M. Zubir, H. Yarmand, S. N. Kazi, and A. Badarudin, "Stability and thermophysical properties of water-based nanofluids containing triethanolamine-treated graphene nanoplatelets with different specific surface areas," Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, vol. 500, pp. 17–31, 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2016.04.016.
12. A. Amiri, R. Sadri, M. Shanbedi, G. Ahmadi, B. T. Chew, S. N. Kazi, and M. Dahari, "Performance dependence of thermosyphon on the functionalization approaches: An experimental study on thermo-physical properties of graphene nanoplatelet-based water nanofluids," Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 92, pp. 322–330, 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2014.12.051.
13. H. Yarmand, S. Gharehkhani, G. Ahmadi, S. F. S. Shirazi, S. Baradaran, E. Montazer, M. N. M. Zubir, M. S. Alehashem, S. N. Kazi, and M. Dahari, "Graphene nanoplatelets–silver hybrid nanofluids for enhanced heat transfer," Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 100, pp. 419–428, 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2015.05.023.
14. H. Yarmand, S. Gharehkhani, S. F. S. Shirazi, M. Goodarzi, A. Amiri, W. S. Sarsam, M. S. Alehashem, M. Dahari, and S. N. Kazi, "Study of synthesis, stability and thermo-physical properties of graphene nanoplatelet/platinum hybrid nanofluid," International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 77, pp. 15–21, 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2016.07.010.
15. C. Selvam, T. Balaji, D. M. Lal, and S. Harish, "Convective heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop of water-ethylene glycol mixture with graphene nanoplatelets," Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, vol. 80, pp. 67–76, 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2016.08.013.
16. S. Iranmanesh, M. Mehrali, E. Sadeghinezhad, B. C. Ang, H. C. Ong, and A. Esmaeilzadeh, "Evaluation of viscosity and thermal conductivity of graphene nanoplatelets nanofluids through a combined experimental–statistical approach using respond surface methodology method," International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 79, pp. 74–80, 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2016.10.004.
17. M. Vakili, S. Khosrojerdi, P. Aghajannezhad, and M. Yahyaei, "A hybrid artificial neural network-genetic algorithm modeling approach for viscosity estimation of graphene nanoplatelets nanofluid using experimental data," International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 82, pp. 40–48, 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2017.02.003.
18. H. D. Koca, S. Doganay, A. Turgut, I. H. Tavman, R. Saidur, and I. M. Mahbubul, "Effect of particle size on the viscosity of nanofluids: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 82, pt. 1, pp. 1664–1674, 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.016.
19. A. Einstein, "Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen," Annalen der Physik, vol. 324, no. 2, pp. 289–306, 1906, doi: 10.1002/andp.19063240204.
20. H. C. Brinkman, "The viscosity of concentrated suspensions and solutions," The Journal of Chemical Physics, vol. 20, no. 4, p. 571, 1952, doi: 10.1063/1.1700493.
21. G. K. Batchelor, "The effect of Brownian motion on the bulk stress in a suspension of spherical particles," Journal of Fluid Mechanics, vol. 83, no. 1, pp. 97–117, 1977, doi: 10.1017/S0022112077001062.
22. B. Bahaya, D. W. Johnson, and C. C. Yavuzturk, "On the effect of graphene nanoplatelets on water–graphene nanofluid thermal conductivity, viscosity, and heat transfer under laminar external flow conditions," Journal of Heat Transfer, vol. 140, no. 6, Art. no. 064501, 2018, doi: 10.1115/1.4038835.
23. L. K. L. Toh and T. W. Ting, "Numerical simulation of graphene-nanoplatelet nanofluid convection in millimeter-sized automotive radiator," CFD Letters, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 32–52, 2024, doi: 10.37934/cfdl.16.6.3252.
24. S. M. S. Murshed, K. C. Leong, and C. Yang, "Thermophysical and electrokinetic properties of nanofluids – A critical review," Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 28, no. 17–18, pp. 2109–2125, 2008, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.01.005.
25. XG Sciences, Inc., "xGnP® graphene nanoplatelets – Grade M," technical data sheet.
26. F. M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 7th ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill, 2011.
27. H. Brenner and D. W. Condiff, "Transport mechanics in systems of orientable particles. IV. Convective transport," Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 199–264, 1974, doi: 10.1016/0021-9797(74)90093-9.
28. M. Corcione, "Empirical correlating equations for predicting the effective thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity of nanofluids," Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 789–793, 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2010.06.072.
29. J. Buongiorno, "Convective transport in nanofluids," Journal of Heat Transfer, vol. 128, no. 3, pp. 240–250, 2006, doi: 10.1115/1.2150834.
30. S. E. B. Maiga, S. J. Palm, C. T. Nguyen, G. Roy, and N. Galanis, "Heat transfer enhancement by using nanofluids in forced convection flows," International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 530–546, 2005, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2005.02.004.
31. M. Sandhya, D. Ramasamy, K. Sudhakar, K. Kadirgama, and W. S. W. Harun, "Ultrasonication an intensifying tool for preparation of stable nanofluids and study the time influence on distinct properties of graphene nanofluids – A systematic overview," Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, vol. 73, Art. no. 105479, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2021.105479.
32. N. Zheng, L. Wang, and Z. Sun, "The effects of ultrasonication power and time on the dispersion stability of few-layer graphene nanofluids under the constant ultrasonic energy consumption condition," Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, vol. 80, Art. no. 105816, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2021.105816.
33. Y. He, Y. Jin, H. Chen, Y. Ding, D. Cang, and H. Lu, "Heat transfer and flow behaviour of aqueous suspensions of TiO₂ nanoparticles (nanofluids) flowing upward through a vertical pipe," International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 50, no. 11–12, pp. 2272–2281, 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2006.10.024.
34. C. T. Nguyen, F. Desgranges, G. Roy, N. Galanis, T. Maré, S. Boucher, and H. Angue Mintsa, "Temperature and particle-size dependent viscosity data for water-based nanofluids – Hysteresis phenomenon," International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 1492–1506, 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2007.02.004.
35. S. A. Ebrahim, E. Pradeep, S. Mukherjee, and N. Ali, "Rheological behavior of dilute graphene-water nanofluids using various surfactants: An experimental evaluation," Journal of Molecular Liquids, vol. 370, Art. no. 120987, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.120987.
36. S. Hamze, D. Cabaleiro, and P. Estellé, "Graphene-based nanofluids: A comprehensive review about rheological behavior and dynamic viscosity," Journal of Molecular Liquids, vol. 325, Art. no. 115207, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.molliq.2020.115207.
37. T. Huq, H. C. Ong, B. T. Chew, K. Y. Leong, and S. N. Kazi, "Review on aqueous graphene nanoplatelet nanofluids: Preparation, stability, thermophysical properties, and applications in heat exchangers and solar thermal collectors," Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 210, Art. no. 118342, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118342.