Authors : Gata, Thomas Bulus; Omonaye, Joseph; Woyengitonye Butler Abadani

Volume/Issue : Volume 11 - 2026, Issue 5 - May

Google Scholar : https://tinyurl.com/yrmdr6ck

Scribd : https://tinyurl.com/2ps7yhba

DOI : https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/26May009

Note : A published paper may take 4-5 working days from the publication date to appear in PlumX Metrics, Semantic Scholar, and ResearchGate.

Abstract : The Geomechanical characterization of limestone in Bauchi state, Nigeria for Engineering and construction applications was carried out with a view to determine the major oxides composition and evaluate both the physical and mechanical properties such as moisture content, dry density, point load index, uniaxial compressive strength and tensile strength. Five representative samples of the limestone were investigated for major oxides composition analysis which shows that the limestone is pure with high percentage of CaO with average of 43.24% while other oxides have a low concentration. The physical properties such as moisture content and dry density index value with average value of 4% and 2.44g/cm3 respectively are with acceptable range when compared with international standard such as AASHTO, ASTM, BS and ISRM. The mechanical properties value index such as point load, uniaxial compressive strength and tensile strength also falls within moderate to high strength when compare with standard like ISRM with average of 3 MPa, 90MPa, and 5.7MPa respectively. From all the evaluation base on the properties of the limestone, it shows that it is good raw material for cement and also good material in Engineering and construction works. The results of this study demonstrate that the limestone from Bauchi State is not only an excellent raw material for cement production but also possesses favorable characteristics for various engineering and construction applications. This research contributes valuable insights into the properties of local limestone resources, promoting their sustainable use in construction practices and supporting the development of infrastructure in Nigeria. Through rigorous evaluation and analysis, this study highlights the importance of characterizing geological materials to optimize their application in engineering projects, thereby enhancing the quality and sustainability of construction in the region.

Keywords : Limestone, Geomechanical Characterization, Moisture Content, Dry Density, Point Load Index, Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS), Tensile Strength, Engineering Properties, Rock Mechanics, Sustainable Construction, ISRM, ASTM, AASHTO, British Standards (BS).

References :

1. Abd El-Aal AK. (2015). Geomechanical Aspects and Suitability of the Limestone (Sulaiy Limestone Formation) for Foundation Bedrock, Sulaiy Region, Saudi Arabia. J Geol Geophys 2015, 4:6. DOI; 10.4172/2329-6755.1000230
2. Adegoke, O.S.; Jan Du Chene, R.E.; Agumanu, A.E. and Ajayi, P.O. (1978).Paleontologic Age of the Kerri-Kerri Formation, Nigeria. Rev. Espan. Micropaleontologia, 2: pp.267-283
3. Adeleke, A. A., Olayinka, A. I., Ojo, J. A. (2020). Geotechnical Properties of Limestone in Southwestern Nigeria: Implications for Engineering Applications. *Journal of Engineering Geology*, 45(3), 123-135.
4. Akinmosun, A., Odewande, A.A., and Akintola, A.I. (2005). “Geochemical Composition and Textural Features of Some Caebonate Rocks in Parts of South Western Nigeria”. Ife Journal of Science. 7(1):101-111.
5. ASTM, C535-16. Standard test method for resistance to degradation of large-size coarse aggregate by abrasion and impact in the Los Angeles machine, ASTM International West Conshohocken, USA. (2016).
6. Bain A.D.N. (1926). The Geology of Bauchi town and surrounding district.
7. Benkhelil, J. (1989). The origin and evolution of the Cretaceous Benue Trough (Nigeria). Journal African Earth Sciences 8, 251-282.
8. Black, R. (1980). Precambrian of West Africa. Episodes, 3, 3-8.
9. British Standards Institution. (2004). Code of practice for earthworks (BS 60310). London: Author.
10. Brook, N. (1993): The Measurement and Estimation of Basic Rock Strength, In Hudson, J (Ed. – in- chief): Comprehensive Rock Engineering, Principle Practice, and Projects, vol. 3: Rock Testing and Site Characterization, Oxford Pergamon, pp 41-81
11. BSADP (Bauchi State Agricultural Development Programme (1996) Zonal and Development Area Agronomy Report.
12. Burke KC, Dewey JF (1972) Orogeny in Africa. In: Dessauvagie TFJ, Whiteman AJ (eds) Africa geology. University of Ibadan Press, Ibadan, pp 583–608
13. Burke, K.C. and A. J. Whiteman (1973). Uplift, rifting and the break-up of Africa. In. Implication of Continental Drift to Earth Sciences, eds. D.H. Tarling and S.K Runcorn. Academic Press. London, pp735.
14. Caby R (1989). Precambrian terranes of Benin–Nigeria and northeast Brazil and the Late Proterozoic South Atlantic fit. Geological Society America Special Paper. 230: 145- 158.
15. Carter, J. D., Barber, W., Tait, E. A. and Jones, G. P. (1963). The geology of parts of Survey, Nigeria 30, 1-99.
16. Cooray, P. G. (1974). Some aspects of the Precambrian of Nigeria: A reviewed Journal of Mineral Geology. 8, 17- 43.
17. Cooray, I. G. (1974). The charnockitic rocks of Nigeria. Pitchamutu. Bangladese University, India, pp.5073.
18. Dada SS (1989) Evolution de la croute continental au Nord Nigeria: apport de la geochimie, dela geochronologie U-Pb et des traceurs isotopiques Sr, Nd et Pb. PhD thesis, University of Science and Technology Languedoc, Montpellier, France
19. Dada, S. S. (2006). Proterozoic Evolution of Nigeria. In: Oshin, O. (Ed.) The Basement Complex of Nigeria and its Mineral Resources, 29 – 45. Petrochemical Services Ltd. Ibadan, Nigeria.
20. Dike, E.F.C. and I.G. Egbuniwe, (1994). An unconformity between the Kerri-Kerri Formation and the Basement Complex at Mainamaji, Bauchi State. Journal of Mining and Geology, 30: 33 – 43.
21. Dweirj, M., Fraige, F., Alnawafleh, H. and Titi, A. (2017) Geotechnical Characterization of Jordanian Limestone. Geomaterials, 7, 1-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/gm.2017.71001.
22. Falconer JD (1911) The geology and geography of northern Nigeria. Macmillan, London
23. Ferré, E. C., Gleizes, G., and Caby, R., (2002), Obliquely convergent tectonics and granite emplacement in the Trans-Saharan belt of Eastern Nigeria: a synthesis. Precambrian Research v.114, p.199–219.
24. Ferré, E. C. and Caby, R. (2006). Granulite facies metamorphism and charnockites.
25. Grant, N.K. (1978) Structural Distinction between a Metasedimentary Cover and Underlying Basement in 600-my-Old Pan-African Domain of Northwest Nigeria, West African. GSA Bulletin, 89, 50-58. plutonism: examples from the Neoproterozoic Belt of northern Nigeria. Proceedings of the Geologists Association. 118: 1: 3-10.
26. Haruna, I. V. (2016). Lithology and field relationships of the Bauchi granitoids northeastern Nigeria. International researchers Journal of earth sciences 4(6), 30-41.
27. Hussain Javid, Jiaming Zhang, Xiao Lina, Khaleel Hussain, Syed Yasir Ali Shah, Sajid Ali, and Altaf Hussain. (2022). Resource Assessment of Limestone Based on Engineering and Petrographic Analysis. Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 8, No. 03, March, 2022.
28. Ibrahim, O.I (2010). Application of VES for Groundwater Exploration in Inkil Bauchi LGA,Bauchi State. Un-published Project, Geology ProgrammeATBUBauchi.
29. IQS, (1989). Iraqi Standards, . IS No. 1387: Natural building stone., Baghdad.
30. Ismail, N.R., Abdulwahid, M. Y. (2021). Engineering Characterization of Local Limestone and Marlstone Aggregates in Koya Area as a Case Study. journal of materials and engineering structures 8 (2021) 269–278.
31. ISRM, (1989): Rock Characterization, Testing on Monitoring. In: Brown, E.T. (edition) ISRM suggested Methods. Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK. pp. 211.
32. ISRM, (1985): Suggested Method for Determining Point Load Strength Int. J Rock Mech Min Sci GeomechAbstr 22(2) pp. 51-60.
33. Jones, H.A. and Hockey, R.D. (1964) The Geology of Part of Southwestern Nigeria Geological Survey. Nigeria, Bull, 31, 101 p.
34. Koukis, G., Sabatakakis, N., & Spyropoulos, A. (2007). Resistance variation of low-quality aggregates. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 66(4), 457–466. doi:10.1007/s10064-007-0098-x.
35. Kroner, A. and Stern, B. (2005). Pan-African Orogeny North African Phanerozoic Rift valley. Encyclopedia of geology vol.1, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
36. McCurry, P. and Wright, J.B. (1977) Geochemistry of Calc-Alkaline Volcanics in Northwestern Nigeria, and a Possible Pan African Suture Zone. Earth Planetary science Letters, 37, 90-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(77)90149-2
37. Mohammed, Y. B., Gazali, A. K. and Naibi, H. S. (2022). Geochemical Quality Assessment of Limestone of the Kanawa Member of Pindiga Formation exposed at Ashaka Quarry, Gongola Basin, NE Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Applied Geology and Geophysics (IOSR- JAGG) Volume 10, PP 12-18 www.iosrjournals.org.
38. Musa, S. A., Abubakar, S., Ibrahim, M. (2021). Geological and Geotechnical Investigations of Limestone Deposits in Bauchi State: Implications for Sustainable Development. *Nigerian Journal of Engineering Science*, 12(2), 89-102.
39. N. Zafir, A. Majid (200), The influence of aggregates properties on strength of concrete. Series on K-economy, Civil and Structural Engineering Works, Malayasia, 1-22.
40. Obaje NG (2009) Geology and mineral resources of Nigeria. Springer, Dordrecht, p 221,
41. Obaje, N.G., Goki, N.G., Umar, U.M., Aweda, A.K., Ozoji, T.M., and Nandom, A. (2019) Mapping and Characterization of Some Industrial Mineral Deposits in North –Central Nigeria as Raw materials for Industrialization. International Journal of Science: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR) (2019) Volume 48, No 1. Pp 160 -182.
42. Odey, J. U., Ugwu, A. C., and Ekwueme, B. N. (2021). Petrography, Geochemistry and Industrial Quality of the Etono Limestone in Ugep Southwest, Southeastern Nigeria. Global journal of geological sciences vol. 19, 2021: 145-153. dx.doi.org
43. Ojo, J. A., Adebayo, S., Olaniyan, J. (2018). Evaluating the Engineering Properties of Limestone for Civil Engineering Applications: A Case Study from Northern Nigeria. *Journal of Civil Engineering Research*, 10(1), 45-56.
44. Okafor, B.J.O. (1982). Notes on gravity profile between Bauchi and Gombe across Kerri-Kerri Formation. 18th Annual Conference, Nigeria Mining and Geosciences Society, Book of Abstract.
45. Olaleye, B. M. Okewale, I. A., (2013). Correlation of Strength Properties of Limestone Deposit in Ogun State, Nigeria with Penetration Rate Using Linear Regression Analysis for Engineering Applications. The International Journal of Engineering and Science (IJES) Volume2, Pages 18-24,2013
46. Ola-Buraimo, A.O., (2005). Sedimentological Characterization of the Chad Formation, Damagum area, Borno State, Nigeria. Earth Science Research Communication, 1(4): 35- 54.
47. Olaide, M.A. (1988) “Raw Materials for Cement Production after the Year 2000: Availabity, Suitability and Accessibility”. National Workshop on Cement and Allied Products. Abeokuta, Nigeria.
48. Olayinka, A. I., Adeyemi, A. A., Ojo, J. A. (2019). Comparative Analysis of Geomechanical Properties of Limestone in Nigeria: Case Studies from Various Regions. *International Journal of Civil Engineering Research*, 10(4), 567-579.
49. Oyawoye, M. O. (1965).Bauchite: A New Variety in the Quartz Monzonitic Series. Nature volume 205, page689.
50. Oyawoye, M. O. (1959). The petrology of the Older Granites around Bauchi, Nigeria. Ph. D. thesis Univ. Durham.
51. Poernomo, Y. C. R., Winarto, S., Mahardana, Z. B., Karisma, D. A., and Ajiono, R. (2019). The Limestone as a Materials Combination of Base Course on the Road Pavement. IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1125 (2021) 012019 doi:10.1088/1757- 899X/1125/1/012019
52. Rahaman, M. A. (1981.) Occurrence and Mineralogy of Bauchite and Charnockitic Rocks in the Oban Massif, Cross River State, Nigeria. Journal of Mineral Geology, 18, 1981, 173-184
53. Turner, D.C. (1983). Structure and Petrology of the Younger Granite ring complexes. In: Geology of Nigeria (2nd ed.). C.A. Kogbe (ed), Rock View Nig. Ltd, Jos, 9. S. P. Braide (1992a). Geologic development, origin and energy mineral resource potential of the Lokoja Formation in the southern Bida Basin. Journal of Mining and Geology, 28, pp33–44.
54. U.S. Department     of Transportation. (2012). Soil classification system    (FHWA-TE-90- 044). Washington, DC: Author.
55. Whiteman, A. (1982). Nigeria: Its Petroleum Geology, Resources and Potential. Graham and Trotman, London, 381pp.
56. Wright, J.B. (1970) Control of Mineralization in the Older and Younger Tin Fields of Nigeria. Economic Geology, 65, 945-951. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.65.8.945.
57. Zarboski, P., Ugodunlunwa, F. Idornigie, A., Nnabo, P and Ibe, K. (1997). Stratigraphy and structure of the Cretaceous Gongola basin, Northeastern Nigeria. Bulletin des Centres de Recherches Exploration Production. ElF-Aquitai.